Balneotherapy, Immune System, and Stress Response: A Hormetic Strategy?
Keywords
Article abstract
Balneotherapy is a clinically effective complementary approach in the treatment of low-grade inflammation- and stress-related pathologies. The biological mechanisms by which immersion in mineral-medicinal water and the application of mud alleviate symptoms of several pathologies are still not completely understood, but it is known that neuroendocrine and immunological responses—including both humoral and cell-mediated immunity—to balneotherapy are involved in these mechanisms of effectiveness; leading to anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, chondroprotective, and anabolic effects together with neuroendocrine-immune regulation in different conditions. Hormesis can play a critical role in all these biological effects and mechanisms of effectiveness. The hormetic effects of balneotherapy can be related to non-specific factors such as heat—which induces the heat shock response, and therefore the synthesis and release of heat shock proteins—and also to specific biochemical components such as hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) in sulfurous water and radon in radioactive water. Results from several investigations suggest that the beneficial effects of balneotherapy and hydrotherapy are consistent with the concept of hormesis, and thus support a role for hormesis in hydrothermal treatments.
Article content
1. Introduction
2. Balneotherapy as a Strategy for Health
3. Balneotherapy and Immune System
4. Balneotherapy and Stress
![Ijms 19 01687 g001 550](http://www.mdpi.com/ijms/ijms-19-01687/article_deploy/html/images/ijms-19-01687-g001-550.jpg)
5. Balneotherapy as a Hormetic Strategy
5.1. Heat Stress Hormetic Effects in Balneotherapy
5.2. Hydrogen Sulfide Hormetic Effects in Balneotherapy
5.3. Radon Hormetic Effects in Balneotherapy
![Table](http://img.mdpi.org/img/table.png)
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ACTH | Adrenocorticotropic hormone |
AGE | Advanced glycation end |
Akt | Protein kinase B |
AMPK | AMP-activated protein kinase |
COMP | Cartilage oligomeric matrix protein |
CRP | C-reactive protein |
eHsp | Extracellular heat shock protein |
FM | Fibromyalgia |
GH | Growth hormone |
GSH | Glutathione |
H2S | Hydrogen sulfide |
HDL | High-density lipoprotein |
HPA | Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal |
HS | Heat shock |
IFN-γ | Interferon gamma |
iHsp | Intracellular heat shock protein |
LDL | Low-density lipoprotein |
LTB4 | Leukotriene B4 |
MCP-1 | Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 |
MDA | Malondialdehyde |
MMP | Matrix metalloproteinases |
NA | Noradrenaline |
NF-κβ | Nuclear factor kappa beta |
NO | Nitric oxide |
OA | Osteoarthritis |
OARSI | Osteoarthritis Research Society International |
PBMC | Peripheral blood mononuclear cells |
PGE2 | Prostaglandin E2 |
RA | Rheumatoid arthritis |
RANTES | Regulated on Activation, Normal T-cell Expressed and Secreted |
RNS | Reactive nitrogen species |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
SNS | Sympathetic nervous system |
SOD | Superoxide dismutase |
TC | Total cholesterol |
TG | Triglycerides |
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